Introduction
Japan is widely known for samurai and bushi warriors. In present-day Japan, we might refer to people who succeed all over the world as “samurai” for carrying on the samurai spirit. However, samurai and bushi warriors no longer exist. If they were still around, they are likely to get caught by the police for carrying a sword. Samurai did exist until the Edo Period and their images can be seen in historical documents. So when did they disappear? Let us look into the reasons why samurai may have disappeared from Japan.1867: When the Period of Samurai (Bushi)
In the present, the idea of the “samurai spirit” still exists, yet no one uses “samurai” or “bushi” as one’s status. However, this status once existed in Japanese history. When did the samurai disappear? The Taisei Hōkan in 1867 played a major role in the disappearance of samurai. Tokugawa Yoshinobu, Edo Shogunate’s 15th Shogun, returned the political power they had as samurai to the Emperor. A Decree of the Restoration of Imperial Rule was issued straight away to declare a political system centered upon the Emperor. What this meant was that the samurai no longer had power. However, this did not mean the end of the samurai status. At the beginning of the Meiji Period, samurai were considered as “shizoku” (descendants of samurai). Eventually, they are put into the category of a commoner under the slogan of “equality of all people”. And in 1876, the “haitōrei” (a decree abolishing the wearing of swords) was issued. Being prohibited to wear a sword, bushi had no other choice but to live as a commoner. Still, they repelled and rebellions broke out everywhere. In the end, the Satsuma Rebellion occurred between Saigō Takamori and the Meiji Government. However, Saigō’s army is defeated by the modernized military forces of the new government. This was when the samurai realized that they could not win against the Meiji Government by military force. With the Satsuma Rebellion, the samurai completely disappeared. Saigō Takamori is considered the “last samurai” for fighting the last battle as a samurai.Why did the Period of Samurai End?
Realization of foreign economic and military powers with Perry’s Arrival
In 1853, the steamers of the United States Navy’s East India Squadron led by Commodore Matthew Perry entered Japan, which was under national seclusion. Since the Japanese had never seen a steamer before, they called the mysterious black ship, “Kurofune”. People in Japan, including samurai were very astonished at the sight of the “Kurofune”.
And in 1854, the “Japan-U.S. Treaty of Peace and Amity” was concluded, opening the two ports of Shimoda and Hakodate to American trade. Japan was finally opened to the rest of the world. Following this treaty in 1858, the “Treaty of Amity and Commerce Between the United States and the Empire of Japan” was concluded, and five ports were opened including Kanagawa (instead of Shimoda), Hakodate, Niigata, Hyogo, and Nagasaki.
Influenced by the treaties between Japan and the U.S., the countries Great Britain, France, Russia, and the Netherlands entered into the “Ansei Treaties” with Japan. These treaties were concluded without the permission of the Imperial Court and were carried out at the Shogunate’s discretion.
The Treaty of Amity and Commerce allowed the U.S. consular jurisdiction in Japan but did not allow Japan tariff autonomy. Therefore, the treaty was unequal and many criticized the Shogunate for concluding such a treaty. As a procedure against those who opposed it, Chief Minister Ii Naosuke who concluded the treaty ordered the Ansei Purge.
Many supporters who advocated “Sonnō Jōi” (reverence for the Emperor and expulsion of foreigners) were imprisoned and died in prison. In response, royalist rebels assassinated Ii Naosuke outside the gates of Edo Castle in 1860. This is what is known as the “Sakuradamon Incident”, and it marked the beginning of upheaval at the end of the Shogunate.
The opening of the country brought surprises. Just like the “Kurofune”, Europe was already capable of producing things that cannot be made by Japan’s technology back then. Japan could not help but admit that its military powers and weapons development were very much behind the rest of the world.
The Chōshu Domain which executed the Jōi did not stand a chance against the foreigners. Their gun battery was occupied and they were eventually defeated in the Shikoku Fleet Shimonoseki Bombardment. Additionally, the Namamugi Incident caused the British to attack Satsuma Domain in retaliation. Satsuma was also overwhelmed by Britain’s military powers.
As a result, powerful feudal clans which were to become leading figures in the Meiji Restoration, began to not only acquire techniques from the West but also import weapons. On the other hand, Western arms merchants such as Glover who saw this as an opportunity for business, were active in Japan during this time.
Perry’s arrival opened Japan to trade, however, it also made Japan awaken to the realization that the West had made remarkable advancements in technology while they were in seclusion. It also spreads a sense of fear that the Western countries will one day occupy Japan.
Failure of the Shogunate
Although Japan was in national seclusion, they were aware of the situation overseas from the trade in Nagasaki and the “fūsetsugaki” (special news about foreign affairs) collected from the Netherlands and China. They also knew that a country as large as China had lost in the Opium War in 1840, and were fully aware of how much of a threat the West was. In the beginning, the Shogunate had issued a decree for expelling foreign ships and bombarded the ships which made frequent visits to Japan. However, in response to the Opium War, a new decree was issued in 1842, permitting providing foreign ships with fuel and water. What they did not expect was the arrival of Perry for trade in 1853, and a reactive approach was taken to delay entering into any treaties with the U.S. In the end, they concluded the Treaty of Amity and Commerce at their discretion, which turned out to be an unequal treaty for Japan. Because they entered into an unequal treaty, the trade with the U.S. and Europe puts Japan into a tough economic situation. Since raw silk and tea were especially thriving export trades, the balance of domestic production collapsed and Japan was in a state of shortage of various goods. Starting with this economic disruption, conflicts with foreigners who are unfamiliar with Japanese culture will also occur. In 1862, a British man inadvertently crossed the Satsuma Daimyo’s procession which was headed for Sankin-Kōtai. The British man was killed by the Satsuma Clan, and this is known as the Namamugi Incident. To not allow the tyranny of foreigners, the movement to expel foreigners gained force. The Chōshu Clan especially reacted extremely by bombarding foreign ships crossing the Straits of Shimonoseki. Furthermore, ideas spread that Japan should return to its traditional ways of ancient times. This idea derived from academic research such as Japanese classical literature and “Mitogaku” (study of academic traditions) which were pro-Imperial families. Advocates of the “Sonnō Ron” associated the idea of reverence for the Emperor with the idea of the expulsion of foreigners to produce the term, “Sonnō Jōi”. Under the slogan, “Sonnō Jōi”, the political situation becomes more and more chaotic with foreigners being expelled and people rebelling against the Shogunate. However, the overwhelming military power of foreign countries resulted in those who expelled the barbarians realizing the difficulty of doing so. Soon, the supporters of the Sonnō Jōi movement realized the difficulties of Jōi and took action to create a new political system. The Shogunate also made attempts to form a new relationship with the Imperial Court because of the rising tide of the movement. This is called, “Kōbu Gattai” (the reconciliation of the Shogunate and the Imperial Court). However, the Chōshu Clan rebelled against the Shogunate because they believed Japan’s victory against the West was impossible with the Shogunate’s system. This led to the Chōshu Conquest. Nonetheless, the Shogunate failed to bend the Chōshu to their will; thus, accelerating the attack of the Shogunate. Through the mediation of Sakamoto Ryōma, Satsuma Clan and Chōshu Clan formed a partnership called, “Satchō Alliance”. The Satchō Alliance as the Imperial Army begins to advance their troops to Kyoto and Edo. Despite knowing foreign countries, the Edo Shogunate was headed toward destruction for the way they handled foreign affairs.Implementation of Taisei Hōkan by Tokugawa Yoshinobu
After the unequal treaty was concluded, Japan was in a state of turmoil, and the movement toward the Shogunate’s attack was accelerating. The establishment of the Satchō Alliance especially played a major role in dividing Japan into two, and a civil war seemed unavoidable. Still, some were trying to seek peace through political reform. The Tosa Clan had made a secret alliance with the Satsuma Clan. To create a peaceful political system, Tosa once again made a promise to Satsuma, and this is called, “Satsudo Meiyaku”. The two clans decided to construct a new political system with “Taisei Hōkan” (Restoration of Imperial Rule). Satsuma had allied with Tosa because they presumed that the 15th Shogun Tokugawa Yoshinobu would not agree to the Taisei Hōkan and this would give them a good enough reason to attack the Shogunate. The Satsudo Meiyaku clearly stated the abolition of the Shogun post, as well as the dispatch of the Tosa Clan to Edo. However, Yamauchi Yōdō, who held great power within the Tosa Clan, agreed to the Taisei Hōkan but was against the dispatch of Tosa troops to Edo. Also, he removed from the petition the portion which stated the abolition of the Shogun post. Now the petition was simply a request to return all political powers to the Imperial Court (Tokugawa Yoshinobu can still reign as Shogun). Yamauchi Yōdō submitted the petition of Taisei Hōkan to the Shogunate, Tokugawa Yoshinobu accepted, and in 1867 the Taisei Hōkan finally took place. As the new government was not prepared to conduct a new political system, the Shogunate believed they could still seize substantial power. Just as they had expected, the Imperial Court had no methods for foreign diplomacy and the Shogunate continues to be in charge of external politics. Although conditional, they were also entrusted with an urgent state of affairs. The Taisei Hōkan did take place but Tokugawa Yoshinobu continued to hold power. There was also another reason for the Taisei Hōkan. The Shogunate had been receiving assistance from France to reconstruct the political system. Concurrently, the Satchō Alliance had been receiving assistance from Great Britain in preparation for attacking the Shogunate. If the conflict continued, there was the possibility that Japan would be made into a colony with the intervention of France or Great Britain. Therefore, the Taisei Hōkan was a measure taken to reform politics without any conflict and to prevent France or Great Britain from dominating Japan. The Edo Shogunate played a dominant role in politics just after the Taisei Hōkan, however, the Satchō Alliance declared a Decree for the Restoration of Imperial Rule led by Iwakura Tomomi. This was a declaration to abolish the Shogunate but also form a new system of government under the Emperor without the Imperial Court. With this decree, the Edo Shogunate was completely abolished but the Tokugawa family continued to take action to participate in the new government. Against this movement, the anti-Shogunates attempted to forbid them from taking any part, and this intensified the conflict between the former Shogunate and the new government.Japan after the Meiji Government
Outbreak of the Bōshin War
With the declaration of the Decree for the Restoration of Imperial Rule, a Kogosho Conference was held ordering Tokugawa Yoshinobu to surrender all his titles and return his domains to the Imperial Court. Some members of the Tosa Clan such as Yamauchi Yōdō were against this decision especially because Yoshinobu was not even present at this conference, but the anti-Shogunates got their way.
Since the Decree for the Restoration of Imperial Rule was decided, Tokugawa Yoshinobu moved from Kyoto’s Nijō Castle to Osaka Castle. This was because the Shogunate retainers strongly reacted against the decree, and Yoshinobu feared that a war would begin if he remained in Kyoto.
In the aftermath of the declaration of decree, small riots occurred all over Japan. A riot also occurs in Edo. At this time, a fire broke out in the Ninomaru portion of the Edo Castle which burnt it down. Rumors spread that this fire was an arson by the Satsuma Clan.
On the same day, an incident occurred in which some members of the Satsuma Clan attacked the Shōnai’s domain residence in Edo. In response, Shōnai sets Satsuma’s Edo residence on fire. This is called, “Edo Satsuma Hantei Yakiuchi Jiken” (The Fire Attack on the Residence of the Satsuma Clan). Not only Kyoto and Osaka, but Edo was also in a state of chaos.
Finally, the new government ordered Tokugawa Yoshinobu to come to Kyoto. Yoshinobu heads to Kyoto unarmed with just a few of his attendants, however, the outraged Shogunate retainers head to Kyoto as an army.
The new government thinks Yoshinobu dispatched an army and sent off their men. The former Shogunate army and the new government army clash in Toba and Fushimi of Kyoto, and this develops into the Battle of Toba-Fushimi. The modernized new government army centered on Satsuma and Chōshu, and overwhelms the former Shogunate army.
Tokugawa Yoshinobu returns to Osaka and boards the Shogunate ship, Kaiyōmaru to head to Edo. The new government begins to move its army to Edo and attempts an all-out attack on Edo Castle. However, the attack was called off because the British thought the battle would affect trade and were against the idea.
A meeting was held between Saigō Takamori and the Shogunate retainer, Katsu Kaishū, and the surrender of the Edo Castle was decided. However, the Shōgitai of Ueno (a group of former Shogunate retainers) is against the bloodless surrender and clashes with the new government army, causing the Battle of Ueno. The new government army defeats the Shōgitai and succeeds in suppressing Edo.
Subsequently, a nearby clan is ordered to hunt down and kill the members of the Aizu Clan and Shonai clan for not swearing allegiance to the new government. However, most of the clans of Tōhoku opposed the new government army and entered into the Ōuetsu Reppan Alliance. Also, the Sendai Clan welcomed Rinnōjimiya to their clan and made him the leader of the alliance.
However, the new government army launches an all-out attack on Aizu Castle, the center of the Reppan Alliance, and makes them surrender. The defeat of the Aizu Clan also meant the defeat of the Reppan Alliance. At the same time, the former Shogunate navy led by Enomoto Takeaki headed towards Ezo.
Enomoto Takeaki entered Hakodate’s Goryōkaku Fortress and established the Republic of Ezo. The new government army also entered Hakodate and fought a battle against the remnants of the Shogunate members who were now the Republic of Ezo. Hijikata Toshizō, the vice commander of Shinsengumi, also took part in this war but was killed in battle. Enomoto also surrenders, bringing an end to the Bōshin War.
Defeat of the Last Samurai, Saigō Takamori
With the closure of the Bōshin War came a new era led by the new government. However, the beginning of the Meiji Period did not mean that samurai immediately disappeared. The new government deemed the samurai as “shizoku” (descendants of a samurai) and formulates policies to merge them with commoners, such as a decree for abolishing the wearing of swords.
Additionally, to organize a modernized army, the new government did not include samurai as soldiers but instead adopted a conscription system. Many samurai were against this and rebellions occurred all over Japan. Around this time, the political upheaval of 1871 (4th Year of Meiji), when Saigo Takamori and others who advocated the conquest of Korea left the new government, occurred.
Because Saigō Takamori resigned from the new government, many of his followers who were also from the Satsuma Clan, returned to Satsuma. Back in Satsuma, former government officials were unemployed, therefore, Saigō established a private school to train them.
The private school immediately grew into a large force within Satsuma. The new government became anxious about the growing forces of this school and sent off a government official who was originally from Satsuma, in an attempt to assassinate Saigō. This action stimulates the forces of the private school and strengthens Saigō’s determination to confront the new government.
The Satsuma Army led by Saigō advanced to Kumamoto Castle with the private school as the center. The new government was aware of this movement through a telegram and was ready for a counterattack at Kumamoto Castle. In 1877, Saigō’s Satsuma Army and the new government army clashed, marking the beginning of The Satsuma Rebellion, which was to become the last and largest rebellion of the Shizoku.
The Satsuma Army makes an all-out attack to conquer Kumamoto Castle. However, Kumamoto Castle was one of the three great castles of Japan, and it was too strong to be taken easily. The struggling Satsuma Army decides on a change of plans.
The new government army collects soldiers from all over Japan to Kyushu to reinforce their army. Instead of attacking Kumamoto Castle, Saigō was planning to attack Kokura of Kitakyūshū. Despite his plan, some members of the Satsuma Army were still making attempts to conquer Kumamoto Castle. Since the army was not functioning as a unit, the invasion of Kokura failed.
The new government army sends troops from the north side to break the network of Satsuma men surrounding Kumamoto Castle. The Satsuma Army had prepared a line of defense at Tabaru Slope so that the new government army couldn’t make any reinforcements. This is how the Battle of Tabaru Slope, the largest and most fierce battle of the Satsuma Rebellion, began.
At the Battle of Tabaru Slope, the new government army had difficulties breaking through. They send in a “battōtai” (a drawn sword squad) formed by skilled swordsmen, and their vigorous attacks finally break the line of defense of Tabaru Slope. The new-government army finally succeeded in breaking through Tabaru Slope.
After the breakthrough of Tabaru Slope by the new government army, the Satsuma Army are forced to lift the siege of Kumamoto Castle and are sent back to Kagoshima. The new government army hunted down the Satsuma Army. In Kagoshima, the Satsuma Army barricaded itself in Shiroyama and fought back the new government army.
The new government army launched an all-out attack on Shiroyama and the military officials of the Satsuma Army were defeated one by one, beginning with Saigō. Saigō was shot and while he escaped, he committed “seppuku” (suicide by disembowelment). With Saigō’s suicide came an end to the Satsuma Rebellion, and the end of the period of samurai.
Summary
Samurai had been around for generations and organized Japan ever since around the Heian Period. In the end, the modernization of the Meiji Period resulted in the decline of the samurai. We cannot see a samurai in the present, but it can be said that the samurai spirit continues to exist in Japan. Additionally, one must not forget Saigō Takamori, who bravely fought to create a new world and died as the “last samurai”. If you would like to see more of Saigō and other samurai in action, please have a look into the streaming service of “Samurai VS Ninja”.If you want to know
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